Spider monkeyFor other uses, seeSpider monkey (disambiguation).

Spider monkeyFor other uses, seeSpider monkey (disambiguation).

Spider monkeysareNew World monkeysbelonging to thegenusAteles, part of the subfamilyAtelinae, familyAtelidae. Like other atelines, they are found intropical forestsof Central and South America, from southernMexicotoBrazil. The genus contains seven species, all of which are under threat; theblack-headed spider monkey, andbrown spider monkeyare critically endangered.

Spider monkey[1]

Black-headed spider monkey(Ateles fusciceps)Scientific classificationKingdom:AnimaliaPhylum:ChordataClass:MammaliaOrder:PrimatesSuborder:HaplorhiniInfraorder:SimiiformesFamily:AtelidaeSubfamily:AtelinaeGenus:AtelesE. Geoffroy, 1806Type speciesSimia paniscusLinnaeus,1758SpeciesAteles belzebuthAteles chamekAteles hybridusAteles marginatusAteles fuscicepsAteles geoffroyiAteles paniscusRange of the spider monkeysDisproportionately long limbs and longprehensiletailsmake them one of the largest New World monkeys and give rise to their common name. Spider monkeys live in the upper layers of the rainforest, andforagein the high canopy, from 25 to 30 m (82 to 98 ft).[2]They primarily eat fruits, but will also occasionally consume leaves, flowers, and insects.[2]Due to their large size, spider monkeys require large tracts of moist evergreen forests, and prefer undisturbed primaryrainforest.[2]They are social animals and live in bands of up to 35 individuals but will split up to forage during the day.[3]Recentmeta-analyseson primate cognition studies indicated spider monkeys are the most intelligent New World monkeys.[4]They can produce a wide range of sounds and will "bark" when threatened; other vocalisations include a whinny similar to a horse and prolonged screams.[3]They are an important food source due to their large size, so are widely hunted by local human populations; they are also threatened byhabitat destructiondue to logging and land clearing.[3]Spider monkeys are susceptible to malaria and are used in laboratory studies of the disease.[3]The population trend for spider monkeys is decreasing; theIUCN Red Listlists one species asvulnerable, four species asendangeredand two species ascritically endangered.Evolutionary historyTheories abound about the evolution of theatelines; one theory is they are most closely related to thewoolly spider monkeys(Brachyteles), and most likely split from such woolly monkeys as (LagothrixandOreonax) in the South American lowland forest, to evolve theirunique locomotory system.[5]This theory is not supported by fossil evidence. Other theories includeBrachyteles,LagothrixandAtelesin an unresolvedtrichotomy,[6]and two clades, one composed ofAtelesandLagothrixand the other ofAlouattaandBrachyteles.[7]More recent molecular evidence suggests the Atelinae split in the middle to lateMiocene(13Ma), separating spider monkeys from the woolly spider monkeys and the woolly monkeys.[8]Taxonomic classificationThe genus nameAtelesderives from theancient greekwordἀτέλεια(atéleia), meaning"incomplete, imperfect",[9][10]in reference to the reduced or non-existent thumbs of spider monkeys.The genus contains seven species, and seven subspecies.[1]*.FamilyAtelidae*.SubfamilyAlouattinae: howler monkeys*.SubfamilyAtelinae*.GenusAteles: spider monkeys*.Red-faced spider monkey,Ateles paniscus*.White-fronted spider monkey,Ateles belzebuth*.Peruvian spider monkey,Ateles chamek*.Brown spider monkey,Ateles hybridus*.White-cheeked spider monkey,Ateles marginatus*.Black-headed spider monkey,Ateles fusciceps*.Brown-headed spider monkey,Ateles fusciceps fusciceps*.Colombian spider monkey,Ateles fusciceps rufiventris*.Geoffroy's spider monkey,Ateles geoffroyi*.Hooded spider monkeyAteles geoffroyi grisescens*.Yucatan spider monkey,Atelesgeoffroyi yucatanensis*.Mexican spider monkey,Ateles geoffroyi vellerosus*.Nicaraguan spider monkey,Ateles geoffroyi geoffroyi*.Ornate spider monkey,Ateles geoffroyi ornatus*.GenusBrachyteles: muriquis (woolly spider monkeys)*.GenusLagothrix: woolly monkeys*.GenusOreonax: the yellow-tailed woolly monkeyAnatomy and physiologyGeoffroy's spider monkeySpider monkeyskeletonon display atThe Museum of Osteology,Oklahoma City, OklahomaSpider monkeys are among the largest New World monkeys;black-headed spider monkeys, the largest spider monkey, have an average weight of 11 kilograms (24 lb) for males and 9.66 kg (21.3 lb) for females.[11][12]Disproportionately long, spindly limbs inspired the spider monkey'scommon name. Their deftlyprehensile tails,[13]which may be up to 89 cm (35 in) long, have very flexible, hairless tips and skin grooves similar tofingerprints. This adaptation to their strictlyarboreallifestyle serves as a fifth hand.[14]When the monkey walks, its arms practically drag on the ground. Unlike many monkeys, they do not use their arms for balance when walking, instead relying on theirtails. The hands are long, narrow and hook-like, and have reduced or non-existent thumbs.[15]The fingers are elongated and recurved.[16]Their hair is coarse, ranging in color from ruddy gold to brown and black, or white in a rare number of specimens.[17][18]The hands and feetare usually black. Heads are small with hairless faces. Thenostrilsare very far apart, which is a distinguishing feature of spider monkeys.[19]Spider monkeys are highly agile, and they are saidto be second only to thegibbonsin this respect. They have been seen in the wild jumping from tree to tree.[20]Female spider monkeys have aclitoristhat is especially developed; it may be referred to as apseudo-penisbecause it has an interior passage, or urethra, that makes it almost identical to thepenis, and retains and distributes urine droplets as the female moves around. This urine is emptied at the bases of the clitoris, and collects in skin folds on either side of a groove on the perineal.[21]Researchers and observers of spidermonkeys of South America look for a scrotum to determine the animal sex because these female spider monkeys have pendulous and erectile clitorises long enough to be mistaken for a penis;researchers may also determine the animal's sex by identifyingscent-markingglands that may be present on the clitoris.[22]BehaviorAs is the case with all species of spider monkeys, thebrown spider monkeyisthreatenedby hunting and habitat loss.Spider monkeys form loose groups, typically with 15 to 25 individuals,[23]but sometimes up to 30 or 40.[24][25]During the day, groups break up intosubgroups of two to eight animals. The size of subgroups and the degree to which they avoid each other during the day depends on food competition and the risk of predation. The average subgroup size is between 2 and 8[26]butcan sometimes be up to 17 animals.[25]Also lesscommon in primates, females rather than males disperse atpubertyto join new groups. Males tend to stick together for their whole lives. Hence,males in a group are more likely to be related and have closer bonds than females. The strongest social bonds are formed between females and their young offspring.[27]Spider monkey standing at the edge of a boatSpider monkeys communicate their intentions and observations using postures and stances, such as postures of sexual receptivity and of attack. When a spider monkey sees a human approaching, it barks loudly similar to a dog. When a monkey is approached, it climbs to the end of the branch it is on and shakes it vigorouslyto scare away the possible threat. It shakes the branches with its feet, hands, or a combination while hanging from its tail. It may also scratch its limbs or body with various parts of its hands and feet. Seated monkeys may sway and make noise. Males and occasionally adult females growl menacingly at the approach of a human. If the pursuer continues to advance, the monkeys oftenbreak off live or dead tree limbs weighing up to 4 kilograms (8.8 lb) and drop them towards the intruder. They do not actually throw the branches,but twist to cause the branch to fall closer to the threat.[clarification needed]The monkeys also defecate and urinate toward the intruder.[28]Spider monkeys arediurnaland spend the night sleeping in carefully selected trees. Groups are thought to be directed by a lead female, which is responsible for planning an efficient feeding route each day.Groomingis not as important to social interaction, owing perhaps to a lack of thumbs.[29]Spider monkeys have been observed avoiding theupper canopy of the trees for locomotion.[30]Oneresearcher speculated this was because the thin branches at the tops of trees do not support the monkeys as well.[31]At 107 grams (3.8 oz), the spider monkeybrainis twice the size of the brain of ahowler monkeyof equivalent body size;[32]this is thought to be a result of the spider monkeys' complex social system and theirfrugivorousdiets, which consist primarily of ripe fruit from a wide variety (over 150 species) of plants. This requires the monkeys to remember when and where fruit can be found. The slow development may also play a role: the monkeys may live from 20[33]to 27 years or more, and females give birth once every 17 to 45 months.[34]Gummy, presumably the oldest living spider monkey in captivity, is presumed to have been born wild in 1962 and currently resides at Fort Rickey Childrens Discovery Zoo located in Rome, NY.[35]

Geoffroy's spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi) browsing, showing the exceptionally long limbs that give them their name.

The diets of spider monkeys consist of about 70 to 85 percent offruitsandnuts.[citation needed][30]They can live for long periods on only one or two kinds of fruits and nuts. They eat the fruits of many big forest trees, and because they swallow fruits whole, theseedsare eventually excreted andfertilizedby thefeces. Studies show the diet of spider monkeys changes their reproductive, social, and physical behavioral patterns. Most feeding happens from dawn to 10 am. Afterward, the adults rest while the young play. Through the rest of the day, they may feed infrequently until around 10 pm. If food is scarce, they may eatinsects, leaves, bird eggs,barkandhoney.[36]Spider monkeys have a unique way of getting food: a lead female is generally responsible for finding food sources. If she cannot find enough food for the group, it splits into smaller groups that forage separately.[citation needed]The traveling groups have four to nine animals. Each group is closely associated with its territory.[37]Ifthe group is big, it spreads out.ReproductionThe female chooses a male from her group for mating. Both males and females use "anogenital sniffing" to check their mates for readiness for copulation. Thegestationperiod ranges from 226to 232 days. Each female bears only one offspring on average, every three to four years.[29]Until six to ten months of age, infants rely completely on their mothers.[28]Males are not involved in raising the offspring.A mother carries her infant around her belly for the first month after birth. After this, she carries iton her lower back. The infant wraps its tail around its mother's and tightly grabs her midsection.[33]Mothers are very protective of their young and are generally attentive mothers. They have been seen grabbing their young and putting them on their backs for protection and to help them navigate from tree to tree. They help the more independent young to cross by pulling branches closer together. Mothers also groom their young.Male spider monkeys are one of the few primateswho do not have abaculum.[38][39]In Mesoamerican culturesSpider monkeys are found in many aspects of theMesoamericancultures. In the Aztec 260-day calendar, Spider Monkey (NahuaOzomatli) serves as the name for the 11th day. In the corresponding Maya calendar,Howler Monkey(Batz) is substituted for Spider Monkey.[40]In present-day Maya religious feasts, spider monkeyimpersonators serve as a kind of demonic clowns.[41]In Classical Maya art, they are ubiquitous, often shown carrying cacao pods.References1.^abGroves, C.P.(2005). Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M., eds.Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference(3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 150–151.ISBN 0-801-88221-4.OCLC62265494.2.^abcCawthon Lang, KA (April 10, 2007)."Primate Factsheets: Black spider monkey (Ateles fisciceps) Taxonomy, Morphology, and Ecology". Wisconsin Primate Research Center (WPRC). RetrievedMay 20,2009.3.^abcd"Spider monkey".Encyclopædia Britannica Online.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.2009. RetrievedMay 20,2009.4.^Deaner, R.O.; van Schaik, C.P. & Johnson, V.E. (2006)."Do some taxa have better domain-general cognition than others? A meta-analysis"(PDF).Evolutionary Psychology.4: 149–196.5.^Kinzey, W. G. (1997).New world primates: ecology, evolution, and behavior. Aldine Transaction.ISBN 0-202-01186-0.6.^Ford, S. M. (1986). "Systematics of the New World monkeys". In Swindler, D. R.; Erwin, J.Comparative Primate Biology, Volume I: Systematics, Evolution and Anatomy. New York: Alan R. Liss. pp. 73–135.7.^Kay, R. F. (1990). "The phyletic relationships ofextant and fossil Pitheciinae (Platyrrhini, Anthropoidea)".Journal of Human Evolution.19: 175–208.doi:10.1016/0047-2484(90)90016-5.8.^Schneider, H. (2000)."The Current Status of the New World MonkeyPhylogeny".Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências.72(2): 165.doi:10.1590/S0001-37652000000200005. RetrievedMay 20,2009.9.^Bailly, Anatole (1981-01-01).Abrégé du dictionnaire grec français. Paris: Hachette.ISBN 2010035283.OCLC 461974285.10.^Bailly, Anatole."Greek-french dictionary online".www.tabularium.be. Retrieved2017-01-24.11.^Youlatos, D. (2002). "Positional behavior of black spider monkeys (Ateles paniscus) in French Guiana".International Journal of Primatology.23(5): 1071–93.12.^Di Fiore, A. & Campbell, C. J. (2007). "The atelines: variation in ecology, behavior, and social organization". In Campbell, C. J.; Fuentes, A.; MacKinnon, K. C.; Panger, M. & Bearder, S.K.Primates in perspective.New York:Oxford University Press. pp. 155–85.13.^Elizabeth P. Benson.Birds and Beasts of Ancient Latin America. p. 60.14.^"Swing Through the Trees With Amazing Spider Monkeys".video.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved2015-05-13.15.^"Spider Monkeys".National Geographic. Retrieved20 June2017.16.^"Rainforest Spider Monkey". Animal Corner. November 11, 2013. RetrievedNovember 12,2013.17.^news.nationalgeographic.com 2015-04-17 Watch Incredibly Rare White Monkeys Ghost Through a Forest18.^"Exclusive: Rare Ghost Monkeys Filmed in Colombia".video.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved2015-05-20.19.^"Ateles geoffroyi".Animal Diversity Web. RetrievedOctober 2,2007.20.^Alfred L. Rosenberger; Lauren Halenar; Siobhán B. Cooke & Walter C. Hartwig (March 15, 2008)."Morphology and evolution of thespider monkey, genus Ateles".Academia.edu.doi:10.1017/CBO9780511721915.002.21.^Dixson, Alan F. (2012).Primate Sexuality: Comparative Studies of the Prosimians, Monkeys, Apes, and Humans.Oxford University Press. p. 364.ISBN 978-0-19-954464-6. RetrievedNovember 22,2012.22.^Roughgarden, Joan (2004).Evolution's Rainbow: Diversity, Gender, and Sexuality in Nature and People.University of California Press. p. 40.ISBN 978-0-520-24073-5.23.^"Spider Monkey Fact Sheet"(PDF).World Animal Foundation. RetrievedNovember 10,2013.24.^"Spider monkey".Lamar University. RetrievedNovember 10,2013.25.^abJennifer Anne Weghorst (December 2007)."Behavioral Ecology and Fission-fusion Dynamics of Spider Monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) in Lowland Wet Forest".Department of Anthropology.St. Louis,Missouri:Washington University: 191–192.26.^"Spider monkey".Planet Wild Life. RetrievedNovember 12,2013.27.^Corrie Agnew."A Spider Monkey's Life in the Canopy".Demand Media. PawNation. RetrievedNovember 10,2013.28.^abCarpenter, C.R. (August 1935). "Behavior of Red Spider Monkeys in Panama".Journal ofMammalogy.16(3): 171–180.doi:10.2307/1374442.JSTOR 1374442.29.^ab"Spider Monkey".Macalester College. Mac Como Zoo. RetrievedNovember 10,2013.30.^ab"Association patterns of spider monkeys: The influence of ecology and sex on social organization"(PDF).Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 1990. pp. 409–414.31.^Allen, William (English cardinal). "On standbyfor the new ark: if spider monkeys are chosen to ride out the 'demographic winter,' here is what latter-day Noahs will have to know." The Sciences 34.n5 (Sept-Oct 1994): 15(3). Expanded Academic ASAP. Gale. BENTLEY UPPER SCHOOL LIBRARY (BAISL). 6 Oct. 2009http://find.galegroup.com/gtx/start.do?prodId=EAIM32.^Milton, Katharine (2000). Alan Goodman; Darna Dufour; Gretel Pelto, eds.Diet and Primate Evolution.Nutritional Anthropology: Biocultural Perspectives on Food and Nutrition.Mountain View, California:Mayfield Publishing Company. pp. 46–54.33.^abMaurice Burton & Robert Burton (2002).International Wildlife Encyclopedia. pp. 2477–2479.34.^Carrol L. Henderson (2002)."Field Guide to the Wildlife of Costa Rica": 454.35.^"Oldest Spider Monkey In The World At Fort Rickey".Fort Rickey Childrens Discovery Zoo. Fort Rickey Childrens Discover Zoo. RetrievedNovember 13,2014.36.^"Wildlife and Plants".16(3rd ed.).MarshallCavendish Corporation. 2007: 1009.37.^Gordon, Nick."The Spider Monkey and the Rainforest".BBC Wildlife Magazine – Monkey business. Archived fromthe originalon July 12, 2007. RetrievedOctober 5,2007.38.^Christina J. Campbell (25 September 2008).Spider Monkeys: The Biology, Behavior and Ecology of the Genus Ateles. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-1-316-58310-4.39.^Harvey, Suzanne."How Did Man Lose His Penis Bone?". University College London,Researchers In Museumsblog, 26 November 2012.40.^Ann Bingham (2004).South and Meso-American Mythology A to Z.Facts on File Inc.p. 77.ISBN 0-8160-4889-4.41.^"The Maya Monkey".Meso-America8

Geoffroy's spider monkey

Geoffroy's spider monkey(Ateles geoffroyi), also known as theblack-handed spider monkey,[3]is aspecies ofspider monkey, a type ofNew World monkey, fromCentral America, parts ofMexicoand possibly a small portion ofColombia. There are at least five subspecies. Some primatologistsclassify theblack-headed spider monkey(A. fusciceps), found in Panama, Colombia, andEcuadoras the same species as Geoffroy's spider monkey.

Conservation statusEndangered (IUCN 3.1)[2]Scientific classificationKingdom:AnimaliaPhylum:ChordataClass:MammaliaOrder:PrimatesSuborder:HaplorhiniInfraorder:SimiiformesFamily:AtelidaeGenus:AtelesSpecies:A. geoffroyiBinomial nameAteles geoffroyiKuhl, 1820Subspecies5, seetextDistribution ofA. geoffroyi(blue) andA. fusciceps(red)SynonymsA. frontatus(Gray, 1842)A. melanochir(Desmarest, 1820)A. trianguligera(Weinland, 1862)It is one of the largest New World monkeys, often weighing as much as 9 kg (20 lb). Its arms are significantly longer than its legs, and itsprehensiletail can support the entire weight of the monkey and is used as an extra limb. Its hands have only a vestigial thumb, but long, strong, hook-like fingers. These adaptations allowthe monkey to move by swinging by its arms beneath the tree branches.Geoffroy's spider monkey lives infission–fusion societiesthat contain between 20 and 42 members. Its diet consists primarily of ripefruitand it requires large tracts of forest to survive. Asa result of habitat loss, hunting and capture for the pet trade, it is considered to be endangered by theIUCN.TaxonomyWild Nicaraguan spider monkeys (A. g. geoffroyi),Guanacaste Province,Costa RicaGeoffroy's spider monkey belongs to the New World monkey familyAtelidae, which contains thespider monkeys,woolly monkeys,muriquisandhowler monkeys. It is a member of the subfamilyAtelinae, which includes the spider monkeys, woolly monkeys and muriquis, and of the genusAteles, which contains all the spider monkeys.[1][4]The genus nameAtelesmeans"imperfect", a reference to the vestigial thumb.[5]The species namegeoffroyiis in honor of French naturalistÉtienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire.Agreement over the number of spider monkey species is not universal. Kellogg and Goldman (1944) based their classification on fur color, and Groves (1989) based his on fur color and geographic distribution. Kellogg and Goldman differentiated Geoffroy's spider monkey from other species by its dark black head, hands and wrists. Recent studies usemitochondrial DNAto help differentiate species. Such studies by Collins and Daubach (2000, 2001, 2006) indicate the Geoffroy's spider monkey is more closely related to thewhite-fronted spider monkey,A. belzebuth, and thebrown spider monkey,A. hybridus, than it is to thered-faced spider monkey,A. paniscus. According to these studies,A. paniscusbranched off from the other spider monkeys approximately 3.27 million years ago and the spider monkeys branched off from the woolly monkeys and muiriquis 3.59 million years ago. Older studies by Porter, et al. indicate the howler monkeys are believed to have branched off from the other Atelides over 10 million years ago.[6]SubspeciesAt least fivesubspeciesof this monkey are recognized:[1]*.Nicaraguan spider monkey,[4]Ateles geoffroyi geoffroyi*.Hooded spider monkey,[4]A. g. grisescens*.Ornate spider monkey,[4]A. g. ornatus*.Mexican spider monkey,[4]A. g. vellerosus*.Yucatan spider monkey,[4]A. g. yucatanensisSome authorities also recognizeA. g. azuerensisandA. g. frontatusas valid subspecies.[2]Theblack-headed spider monkey,Ateles fusciceps, isconsidered by authorities such asGroves(1989) and Rylands et al. (2006) to be a separate speciesfrom Geoffroy's spider monkey.[1][7][8]Other authorities, including Froelich (1991), Collins and Dubach (2001) and Nieves (2005), condiderA. fuscicepsto be synonymous withA. geoffroyi.[6]Under this treatment, the two subspecies of the black-headed spider monkey represent additional subspecies of Geoffroy's spider monkey,A. g. fuscicepsandA. g. rufiventris.[6]Distribution and habitatTherangeof this species extends over much of Central America, encompassingPanama,Costa Rica,Nicaragua,Guatemala,Honduras,El Salvador,Belizeand the south and much of the eastern portion ofMexico.[4]Observations by local people indicate the southernmost subspecies, thehooded spider monkey,A. g. grisescens, may also occur in the portion ofColombianear the Panama border.[4][9]In western Colombia and northeast Panama, it is replaced by theblack-headed spider monkey,A. fusciceps, which is considered by some primatologists to be a subspecies of Geoffroy's spider monkey.[4][6]Geoffroy's spider monkey lives in various types offorest, includingrains,semideciduousandmangroveforests.[10]Higher densities of Geoffroy's spider monkeys are generally found in areas containing evergreen forest.[11]Physical descriptionGeoffroy's spider monkey is one of the largest New World monkeys. Its length measures between 30 and 63 cm(12 and 25 in) and it weighs between 6 and 9 kg(13 and 20 lb).[3][12]The tail is longer than the body at between 63 and85 cm(25 and 33 in).[3][12]Males and females are approximately the same size.[13]

Its body color varies by subspecies and population, and can bebuff,reddish,rust,brownorblack.[3][14][15]The hands and feet are dark orblack.[16]The face usually has a pale mask and bare skin around the eyes and muzzle.[12]Its arms and legs are long and slim.[17]The armsare about 25% longer than the legs.[18]The thumb is only vestigial, but the fingers are long and strong, making the hands hook-like.[18][19]The long arms and hook-like hands allow Geoffroy's spider monkey tobrachiate, that is, swing by its arms beneath the tree branches.[18]Theprehensiletail is very strong and has a palm-like pad at the end. The tail acts as an extra limb, and is used for locomotion, as well as to pick fruits and to scoop water from holes in trees.[18]Geoffroy's spider monkey can support its weight suspended by its tail and often does so when feeding.[15]Theclitorisof female Geoffroy's spider monkeys is large and protrudes, looking like apenis.[18]This organ, called apendulous clitorisbecause ofthe way it dangles externally, is actually larger than the male flaccid penis.[20]As a result, females are sometimes mistaken for males by human observers.[18]The enlarged clitoris is believed to aid males in determining sexual receptiveness, allowing them to touch the clitoris and smell their fingers to pick up chemical or olfactory cues to the female's reproductive status.[20]BehaviorThumbless hands are useful forbrachiationGeoffroy's spider monkey isarborealanddiurnal, and mostly inhabits the upper portion of the forest.[12][17][18]However, it comes to the ground more frequently than other spider monkeyspecies.[21]It lives infission–fusion societies, large groups with a typical 20 to 42 members, which split into smaller subgroups to forage during the day.[13][18][22]Subgroups typically number two to six members, and sometimes the subgroups remain separate from the main group even through the night.[18]Geoffroy's spider monkey forages over large tracts of forest in search of food. Home ranges for groups can exceed 900 hectares (2,200 acres).[13]Monkeys can range about 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) each day.[13]Males tend to cover a larger day range than females, and dominant individuals tend to have larger day ranges.[13]Geoffroy's spider monkey sometimes rubs a mixture of saliva and groundlimetreeCitrus aurantifolialeaves on its fur.[18]This is believed to act as an insect repellent.[18]In somelocations, Geoffroy's spider monkey interacts with thewhite-headed capuchin.[3]These interactions can include mutual grooming.[23]In addition to walking or running on four limbs and climbing, Geoffroy's spider monkey uses several forms of suspensory locomotion.Brachiation, or swinging from the arms with assistance from the prehensile tail, is the most common form of suspensory locomotion. Less common forms include swinging while suspended by the tail, and walking on four limbs under a branch. Studies have indicated the Geoffroy's spider monkey uses suspensory locomotion less frequently than other spider monkey species.[21]Play mediaCaptive Geoffroy's spider monkeys inUeno Zoo,Japan(video)The most common method used by spider monkeys to cross between trees is "bridging", in which the monkey grasps for a branch from the new tree and pulls it towards itself so it can climbonto it. Airborne leaps are used when necessary, and certain populations of Geoffroy's spider monkey, especially in Panama, are known to leap between trees more frequently than other populations.[21]When not moving, Geoffroy's spider monkey usesnot only supported postures, such as sitting or standing, but also suspended postures in which ithangs from a branch. Suspended postures always include support from the tail, and sometimes the monkey hangs by its tail alone. Other times it hangs by the tail and by one or more limbs simultaneously. Studies have indicated at least some Geoffroy's spider monkeypopulations use suspended postures less frequently when feeding than other spider monkey species.[21]Communication and intelligenceSounds produced by Geoffroy's spider monkey include barks, whinnies, squeals, squeaks and screams.[3][12][18]Barks are typically alarm calls.[18]Whinnies and screams can be used as distress calls, and are also made at dawn and at dusk.[18]Each monkey makes a unique sound, which may allow monkeys to recognize each other through vocal communication alone.[18]Several researchers have investigated the use of whinnies, which consist of between two and 12 quick increases and decreases in pitch, in more detail.[24]This research has indicated one additional purpose of whinnies is to call other group members to a food source.[24]Other purposes of whinnies suggested by this researchhave included maintaining vocal contact with other group members while traveling and distinguishing between group members and members of other groups.[24]Geoffroy's spider monkey uses several forms of nonvocal communication. A curled tail or arched back can be used as a threat display towards other spider monkeys. A head shake is used either as a threat or an invitation to play. Shaking branches or swaying arms is used as a warning of danger to the group.[15]Although they do not use tools, spider monkeys, including Geoffroy's spider monkey, are regarded as intelligent primates. A study performed in 2007 concluded they were the third most intelligent nonhuman primate, behind onlyorangutansandchimpanzees, and ahead ofgorillasand all other monkeys.[25]This mental capacity may be an adaptation to spider monkeys'frugivorousdiets, which require them to be able to identify and memorize many different types of foods and their locations.[26]Diet